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Project Details
Funding Scheme : General Research Fund
Project Number : 14620120
Project Title(English) : Role of transcription skills in young Chinese language learners’ writing development 
Project Title(Chinese) : 少年中文二語學習者寫作發展：轉寫能力的影響 
Principal Investigator(English) : Prof Bai, Barry 
Principal Investigator(Chinese) :  
Department : Dept of Curriculum & Instruction
Institution : The Chinese University of Hong Kong
E-mail Address : barry.bai@cuhk.edu.hk 
Tel : 39431306 
Co - Investigator(s) :
Prof MCBRIDE, Catherine A
Prof Shum, Mark S K
Prof Wong, Yu-ka
Dr Zhou, Yanling
Panel : Humanities, Social Sciences
Subject Area : Education
Exercise Year : 2020 / 21
Fund Approved : 633,800
Project Status : Completed
Completion Date : 30-6-2023
Project Objectives :
To evaluate the influence of transcription skills, as compared to oral language and reading skills, on CSL writing development among Hong Kong’s ethnic minority students. A substantial body of research has supported the importance of transcription skills regarding the development of children’s writing in alphabetic languages (see the reviews by Kent & Wanzek, 2016, and Feng, Lindner, Ji & Joshi, 2019), while similar results were also found in studies on Chinese children’s writing (Yeung, Ho, Chan, and Chung, 2013, 2017, 2018). However, studies have yet to be conducted scrutinizing the role of transcription among CSL learners, for whom the Chinese writing system has represented a major learning hurdle. This issue is of particular concern for ethnic minority students in Hong Kong, whose families are mostly from South Asian countries, such as India, Nepal, and Pakistan. Constituting around 2.5% of the total student population of primary and secondary schools, these students’ Chinese language proficiencies, especially in reading and writing, are generally far lower than those of their Chinese-speaking counterparts (Wong, 2019). This has a detrimental effect on their academic advancement (Loh & Tam, 2016). The problems Hong Kong ethnic minority students have in learning to read and write in Chinese have also been widely observed among CSL learners worldwide. China’s growing global influence has been matched by a growth of interest in learning Chinese outside China. However, Chinese has long been considered a difficult foreign language because of its complex writing system (Everson, 2002). This proposed study aims to assess if transcription skills are a major constraint on the CSL students’ writing development.
To evaluate the role of transcription in CSL learners’ writing development, giving consideration to the developmental, reciprocal relationships between writing and its component skills (Tolchinsky, 2018). Our understanding of CSL literacy development is far from adequate: Research to date has largely focused on Chinese character learning among adult learners (Shen, 2013), while comparatively few studies have investigated CSL learners’ reading and writing development beyond the beginning stage, particularly for young learners in a Chinese-speaking society. The PI and Co-Is have conducted studies with Hong Kong’s ethnic minority students in order to explore reading development among this under-represented demographic (e.g., Shum et al., 2014; Wong, 2017a; Zhou & McBride., 2015). The knowledge gained, measures, and analytic methods developed from these studies will be used in the proposed study. However, relatively little attention has been paid to CSL writing, especially regarding its developmental trajectory and relationships with critical component skills (Leong, Shum, Tai, Ki, & Zhang, 2018; Wong, 2018a). Using a longitudinal design, this study aims to fill this knowledge gap by exploring the roles of various component skills, focusing on transcription skills, played in the CSL writing composition development of Hong Kong’s primary ethnic minority students. The findings will advance our understanding of the developmental trajectory of CSL writing, using structural models (see graphic representations in Figures 1 and 2) to specify the relative influences of lower-level transcription skills compared to those of the higher-level linguistic processes, represented by oral language and reading.
To identify the contribution of transcription to CSL writing and, consequently, to inform the design and implementation of the CSL literacy instruction provided both to CSL learners in general and Hong Kong’s ethnic minority students in particular. Writing is an important academic skill that students must acquire for expression, communication, and learning. Educators all over the world are concerned with students’ writing performance and are keen to explore methods through which to improve the writing instruction they provide. The need for a deeper understanding of the trajectory of literacy development in order to improve effective writing instruction is even more acute regarding second language learning. First, there are great variations in the acquisition and attainment levels of literacy skills among second language learners. This is especially for immigrant-learners learning a dominant second language, for whom literacy proficiency in that language has a major influence on their social integration (August & Shanahan, 2008). Learning to read and write fluently in the dominant language is critical for immigrant children. In terms of Hong Kong’s ethnic minority students, their Chinese teachers, who are mostly mainstream Chinese language teachers without formal CSL instruction training, find literacy teaching a challenge. There is also a broader need to provide better instructions to students in order to enhance their Chinese literacy skills. As shown by effectiveness of transcription skills training for enhancing writing in English (Alves et al., 2016), the findings of the study will help teachers to improve their CSL students’ writing by both attending to the component skills that matter and connecting transcription to writing in an informed manner.
Abstract as per original application
(English/Chinese):
本研究探查轉寫能力（包括抄寫流暢度和拼寫能力）對香港學習中文作為第二語言（中文二語）的少數族裔學生的寫作的影響。參考過往有關字母語言和中文學習者寫作構成要素能力的研究文獻，本研究採用縱向設計，評核學生的中文轉寫能力、口語、閱讀和寫作之間的關係。研究成果有助說明轉寫能力對中文二語學習者寫作能力發展的影響，並有利中文二語教學的設計及實施。 寫作對個人生活、升學及就業的影響巨大，相關研究甚多，惟大多以字母語言學習者為研究對象。這些研究確立了轉寫、口語及閱讀等作為關鍵要素能力對寫作發展的重要作用（Kent＆Wanzek， 2016）。但是，中文二語的研究一般集中在閱讀能力方面，我們對中文二語者寫作的了解相對較少。這種情況也見諸有關香港少數族裔學生中文學習的研究。這些學生的中文能力較弱，影響學習，因此引起社會的關注。我們對這些學生的中文寫作發展了解尤其不足，有礙為他們提供有效的中文學習支援。 本研究將使用回歸分析和結構方程模型，以評估香港約200名來自南亞裔高小學生的寫作及其要素能力（即轉寫、口語和閱讀）之間的發展關係。研究採縱向維期兩年的設計，共有三波的數據收集，以便建立模型及控制變量。研究工具及分析模型的發展都參考了有關中文母語及二語的寫作研究成果，其中包括研究團隊成員有關香港南亞裔學生中文二語發展的研究。 研究成果有助確定轉寫能力對中文二語寫作的影響，評定與口語及閱讀能力的相互影響，並由此提高我們對中文二語寫作發展的認識。研究成果亦有助發展有效的中文二語教育政策、課程及教學設計，特別是對香港少數族裔學生的中文教育。
Realisation of objectives: This section outlines how and to what extent the research project objectives have been achieved, addressing any under-achievements and attempts to overcome challenges encountered. The study focused on evaluating the influence of transcription skills on Chinese as a second language (CSL) writing development among Hong Kong's ethnic minority students, examining the developmental relationships between writing and its component skills, and informing CSL literacy instruction. 1. Objective 1: Influence of Transcription Skills on CSL Writing Development • The study successfully assessed the relative contributions of transcription skills (spelling and handwriting fluency), oral language, and reading skills to the sentence writing abilities of young CSL learners. Regression and path analyses demonstrated that transcription skills significantly impact sentence writing at both Time 1 (end of Grade 4) and Time 2 (end of Grade 5). Spelling emerged as a particularly strong predictor of writing performance, while handwriting fluency had a smaller, diminishing influence over time. Character reading was also a crucial predictor, contributing significantly to spelling development and overall writing performance. • The objective was achieved to a significant extent, providing robust evidence of the critical role of transcription skills in the writing development of CSL learners. The study highlighted the need for focused attention on spelling and character reading skills in CSL instruction. 2. Objective 2: Role of Transcription in CSL Writing Development • The longitudinal design of the study allowed for an in-depth exploration of the developmental trajectory of CSL writing. The findings supported the hypothesis that transcription skills are vital in the early stages of writing development, with their influence diminishing as higher-level linguistic processes become more prominent. The study identified a uni-directional reading-to-writing relationship, where character reading significantly influenced writing development over time. • This objective was fully achieved, advancing our understanding of the developmental relationships between writing and its component skills in CSL learners. The study's findings contribute to the literature on CSL writing development and inform future research and instructional practices. 3. Objective 3: Informing CSL Literacy Instruction • The study’s findings have significant implications for CSL literacy instruction. By identifying the key role of transcription skills, particularly spelling, the research provides a basis for developing targeted instructional strategies to enhance CSL writing. The findings align with previous research on the effectiveness of transcription skills training in other languages, suggesting that similar approaches could benefit CSL learners. • The objective was achieved by providing actionable insights for improving CSL literacy instruction. The study’s recommendations offer practical guidance for educators and policymakers to enhance the writing skills of ethnic minority students in Hong Kong. The research project successfully achieved its objectives, providing a comprehensive evaluation of the influence of transcription skills on CSL writing development, exploring the developmental relationships between writing and its component skills, and informing CSL literacy instruction. The study's findings underscore the importance of targeted transcription skills training and holistic literacy instruction to support the academic advancement of ethnic minority students learning Chinese as a second language.
Summary of objectives addressed:
Objectives Addressed Percentage achieved
1.To evaluate the influence of transcription skills, as compared to oral language and reading skills, on CSL writing development among Hong Kong’s ethnic minority students.Yes100%
2.To evaluate the role of transcription in CSL learners’ writing development, giving consideration to the developmental, reciprocal relationships between writing and its component skills. Yes100%
3.To identify the contribution of transcription to CSL writing and, consequently, to inform the design and implementation of the CSL literacy instruction provided both to CSL learners in general and Hong Kong’s ethnic minority students in particular. Yes100%
Research Outcome
Major findings and research outcome: Major Findings 1. Influence of transcription skills: a) Spelling: Key in early sentence writing, with strong predictive value at multiple assessments. b) Handwriting fluency: Influences writing but diminishes in importance with proficiency. 2. Role of character reading: Essential for improving spelling and writing. Demonstrates a one-way relationship enhancing writing via reading. 3. Oral language skills: Impact on writing is indirect and weaker, mediated by character reading skills. 4. Developmental trajectory: Early reliance on transcription skills shifts toward higher-level linguistic processes over time. Research Outcomes 1. Enhanced understanding of CSL writing development: Highlights transcription skills, especially spelling, as critical in early stages. 2. Educational implications: a) Stresses the importance of spelling and character reading for effective literacy instruction. b) Suggests targeted spelling practice and integrating character reading with a balance of skills for better writing proficiency. 3. Policy and practice: Recommends policy changes for teacher training and literacy instruction tailored to ethnic minority students. In summary, the study offers insights into factors affecting CSL writing development and practical steps to enhance literacy instruction for ethnic minority students in Hong Kong.
Potential for further development of the research
and the proposed course of action:		 Potential for Further Development This research underscores the importance of transcription skills in CSL writing. Future studies should explore the effects of transcription training over time, the relationship between transcription and cognitive skills in advanced writing, and the applicability of results across diverse CSL populations. Proposed Course of Action To build on these findings, a multi-phase approach is recommended: 1. Longitudinal studies: Track the impact of transcription skills on writing over extended periods. 2. Intervention programs: Create and evaluate transcription training programs to boost CSL writing proficiency. 3. Teacher training: Offer professional development for teachers to integrate transcription skills with reading and language activities. 4. Policy advocacy: Promote policy changes to highlight transcription skills in CSL curricula and support resources for teachers and students. This strategy aims to advance CSL literacy education and improve academic outcomes for ethnic minority students in Hong Kong.
Layman's Summary of
Completion Report:		 This research project explores how young students from ethnic minority backgrounds in Hong Kong learn to write in Chinese. It focuses on two key skills: spelling and handwriting, collectively known as transcription skills. The study found that being good at spelling is especially important for these students to write well in Chinese. Handwriting skills are also important but become less critical as students get older. The project discovered that reading Chinese characters plays a crucial role in helping students improve their writing. While speaking and understanding spoken Chinese are important, these skills mainly help writing by making it easier to read. This research is significant because it highlights the specific areas where students and teachers should focus on to improve Chinese writing skills. For teachers, it suggests spending more time on spelling and reading practice. For policymakers, it recommends providing better training for teachers to support these essential skills. Overall, the project provides valuable insights into how young learners can become better writers in Chinese, which is important for their academic success and future opportunities.
Research Output
Peer-reviewed journal publication(s)
arising directly from this research project :
(* denotes the corresponding author)
Year of
Publication		 Author(s) Title and Journal/Book Accessible from Institution Repository
2024 Wong, Y. K*., Bai, B., McBride, C., Shum, M. S. K., & Zhou, Y.  Role of transcription skills in young Chinese language learners’ sentence writing: A one–year longitudinal study  Yes 
Recognized international conference(s)
in which paper(s) related to this research
project was/were delivered :
Month/Year/City Title Conference Name
Taipei (virtual conference) Effects of transcription skills on sentence writing in young Chinese as a second language (CSL) learners  Association for Reading and Writing in Asia (ARWA) Annual Conference 2021 
Other impact
(e.g. award of patents or prizes,
collaboration with other research institutions,
technology transfer, etc.):
  SCREEN ID: SCRRM00542