ENQUIRE PROJECT DETAILS BY GENERAL PUBLIC

Project Details
Funding Scheme : General Research Fund
Project Number : 18601321
Project Title(English) : The Japanese Shakuhachi or Chinese Chiba? Investigating the Modern Shakuhachi in China 
Project Title(Chinese) : 日本尺八还是中国尺八?对当代中国关于尺八认知的调查 
Principal Investigator(English) : Dr Matsunobu, Koji 
Principal Investigator(Chinese) : 松信浩二 
Department : Department of Cultural and Creative Arts
Institution : The Education University of Hong Kong
E-mail Address : kmatsunobu@eduhk.hk 
Tel :  
Co - Investigator(s) :
Dr Ng, Kwok Wai
Dr WANG, Jin Xuan
Panel : Humanities, Social Sciences
Subject Area : Humanities and Arts
Exercise Year : 2021 / 22
Fund Approved : 319,209
Project Status : Completed
Completion Date : 31-12-2023
Project Objectives :
Explore Chinese practitioners’ values, preferences, and understandings of the shakuhachi.
Identify the ways in which Chinese shakuhachi practitioners learn and teach shakuhachi music.
Analyze the characteristics of Chinese approaches to shakuhachi practice from the viewpoints of Japanese shakuhachi professionals.
Explore ways in which the view of shakuhachi music as Japanese can be reconstructed in the Chinese context.
Locate the presence of Chinese shakuhachi practitioners within the international scene of shakuhachi music by identifying their uniq approaches to shakuhachi music.
Discuss the Chinese contributions to changing values, beliefs, and norms of shakuhachi music.
Abstract as per original application
(English/Chinese):

尺八作为一种竹笛乐器,被认为是如今日本的代表性乐器之一,其最原始形态可追溯至 8 世纪的中国(Malm, 2000; Wade, 2005)。最早期的中国尺八在其发源地已近乎消亡(Wang, 2010),而其他类型的竖笛,如闭口箫和通口的洞箫(南箫)仍在中国的广泛流传(Thrasher, 2008)。然而,在过去十年中,尺八在中国掀起了一股“复兴”风潮,有越来越多的中国尺八演奏家、教师和乐器制造商开始积极地向大众授课以及演奏。在2022年,新一届的国际尺八音乐节将于深圳举行,这是一项四年一度的音乐盛会,此前已在纽约、博尔德、悉尼、京都和伦敦等地举办过。 尺八在中国日渐流行的背后承载着中国实践者们的故事:诞生于唐朝的尺八终于回归它的发源地,并正在恢复其作为中国乐器的正统性。出于对历史的怀念以及对未来的责任,中国尺八界的领军人物将尺八作为一种中国乐器来进行推广。 尺八在日本以外也被广泛地演奏和欣赏(Keister,2004 年;Matsunobu,2011 年;Strothers,2010 年)。在当今蓬勃发展的国际尺八场景中,非日本籍实践者的存在是显而易见的(Smith,2008 年)。随着各国参与者的扩大和多语言空间的兴起,尺八见证了成员界限的变化、音乐认同感和音乐所有权观念的变化(Matsunobu, 2009)。 此前有关尺八国际化的研究论题主要集中在西方人对尺八音乐的接受以及他们对尺八音乐的个性化、去语境化方法的倾向上(Keister, 2004; Matsunobu, 2009, 2011, 2013)。然而,人们对尺八音乐的中国式教学方法知之甚少。与西方实践者相比,中国的尺八实践者有着强烈的植根于中国文化的音乐认同感。基于作者之前对日本和北美尺八实践者的生活经历的研究(Matsunobu, 2009, 2011, 2013, 2015),这项民族音乐学研究旨在揭示如何在中国语境下采用中国式的方法对尺八进行传承、本土化和适用化。
Realisation of objectives: Objective 1: The shakuhachi is one of the most popular non-Western instruments. Its internationalization began in the 1960s, and it was introduced to China for the first time in the 1990s, despite having roots in China during the Tang dynasty. Interviews with Chinese shakuhachi players reveal distinct tendencies and characteristics related to their values, preferences, and understandings of the instrument: (a) Chinese shakuhachi players tend to be younger; (b) Chinese players are more inclined towards anime and popular music, reflecting the tastes of younger generations; (c) Chinese players are actively developing 3D-printed and metal shakuhachi instruments. These industrial versions are affordable and of good quality, serving as substitutes for traditional instruments; and (d) Chinese shakuhachi players are interested in the spiritual dimensions of playing. However, unlike Western practitioners, they draw upon their own spiritual and wisdom traditions rather than referring to Japanese Buddhism or non-institutionalized Zen Buddhism in the West. Chinese shakuhachi players often exhibit a stronger sense of ownership over the instrument, a sentiment shaped by the Kyotaku Denki legend. The legend from the 1795 publication Kyotaku Denki Kokuji-kai tells the story of Zhang Bai, a Tang dynasty layman who created the first shakuhachi piece known as kyorei. This music has been passed down through the Zhang family for sixteen generations. Zhang Can taught this piece to Japanese monk during his studies in China from 1249 to 1254. Scholars believe the shakuhachi was brought from China to Japan in the 9th century, and the Kyotaku Denki legend was likely fabricated 500 years later in Japan. Despite this, the legend is accepted in China, where kyorei is often promoted as an ancient Chinese music form, connecting listeners to Tang dynasty heritage, even though it is likely a Japanese composition. The Kyotaku Denki legend is no longer merely a subject of scholarly debate regarding the origins of shakuhachi music; it has become a tool for the appropriation of what is perceived as traditional Japanese music by Chinese practitioners. Objective 2: A distinctive characteristic of the Chinese approach to shakuhachi instruction is the monetization of lessons through online platforms. Two companies have developed platforms that offer paid access to shakuhachi instructional videos from various teachers. Each video is relatively short, typically lasting 5 to 6 minutes. To create this content, select Japanese teachers have been invited to China to provide brief lessons, supported by professional video creators, focusing on specific techniques and expressive elements. Each teacher contributes 30 videos and is required to sign a contract ensuring they do not produce similar content with other companies. This represents a unique business model for folk music instruction, which has not been widely reported elsewhere. Another notable development in shakuhachi teaching methods is the adoption of numbered notation, a system traditionally used for teaching Chinese flutes such as the xiao. Given that a significant proportion of Chinese shakuhachi players have prior experience with traditional Chinese flutes, this approach is quite logical. While some argue that numbered notation does not fully capture the essence of shakuhachi music and caution against playing the shakuhachi as one would a xiao, others adopt a more flexible stance, exploring methods for playing the Chinese pentatonic scale on the shakuhachi. Objective 3: There are differing views on the Chinese interpretation of the shakuhachi in Japan. Japanese awareness of the increasing number of shakuhachi players in China is growing. Renowned shakuhachi maker Ryuho Miura, who has many Chinese disciples but none in Japan, believes China’s future is vital for the shakuhachi tradition. While many Japanese acknowledge that China is the largest market for the shakuhachi and holds significant potential for its further development, they also express concerns that China’s approach can be overly aggressive and heavily commercialized. For instance, a shakuhachi shop owner in China applied for copyrights to the names of well-known shakuhachi makers in Japan without their permission, aiming to monopolize the Chinese market for Japanese shakuhachi instruments. His intention was not to deceive the Japanese makers; he later clarified that they could reclaim their rights at no additional cost, provided they covered the original copyright application fee. Incidents like this, combined with the widespread portrayal of mainland business culture in mass media, have contributed to negative perceptions of the shakuhachi business model in China. Objective 4: One notable shift in perception regarding the shakuhachi is that performing the shakuhachi as a Chinese instrument can help avoid political conflicts. Just as Chinese citizens wearing kimonos can face criticism in China for celebrating a Japanese cultural artifact, the shakuhachi has the potential to be viewed similarly. However, unlike the kimono, the shakuhachi is relatively new to many Chinese people and has generally been perceived as innocuous. Despite both the kimono and the shakuhachi sharing similar Chinese roots, one is regarded as more distinctly Japanese than the other. One participant explained this difference: Chinese individuals tend to feel a stronger sense of ownership toward the shakuhachi, as they firmly believe it originated in China. In contrast, the kimono has been consistently portrayed as a quintessentially Japanese garment in movies and dramas, leading to its perception as more Japanese and less connected to Chinese heritage. Objective 5: The growing interest in shakuhachi music in China led to planning the 2022 World Shakuhachi Festival in Shenzhen, which was expected to be a significant event for Chinese practitioners but was cancelled last minute due to COVID-19. This was a major loss for the international shakuhachi community, as it could have highlighted advancements in China. The International Shakuhachi Society has since scheduled the next conference for Texas in 2025. Some committee members expressed concerns about hosting a WSF in China, reflecting their negative perception toward China. Additionally, some Chinese players have faced online disputes with anonymous individuals who argue that the shakuhachi should only be recognized as a Japanese instrument, suggesting that if it is considered Chinese, many Chinese instruments with Middle Eastern origins transmitted through the Silk Road would also lose their authenticity. Objective 6: Chinese shakuhachi practitioners have developed a unique shakuhachi culture in China that employs new pedagogies infused with Chinese music theory, combining elements of Buddhism, Taoism, and traditional Chinese thought. Historically, the shakuhachi has been rooted in Buddhism, particularly Fuke Zen. Recently, however, there has been an association with Taoism, particularly as a tool for qigong practice. For instance, the Taoist Association of Celestial Master Chang LXV asserts that the bamboo used for the shakuhachi should be harvested when the Big Dipper reaches the ground. The seven nodes of the shakuhachi correspond to the Big Dipper. Wan Lei argues that the shakuhachi itself is an embodiment of traditional Chinese philosophy and worldview in its construction. The instrument is hollow and bottomless, with the upper and lower openings representing the sun and moon. The five finger holes represent the Five Constant Virtues of Confucianism as well as the Five Phases. He argues that many Chinese shakuhachi enthusiasts are drawn to the instrument because they appreciate the profound Chinese cultural heritage it carries. The shakuhachi is finding its place in the minds of modern Chinese practitioners.
Summary of objectives addressed:
Objectives Addressed Percentage achieved
1.Explore Chinese practitioners’ values, preferences, and understandings of the shakuhachi.Yes100%
2.Identify the ways in which Chinese shakuhachi practitioners learn and teach shakuhachi music.Yes100%
3.Analyze the characteristics of Chinese approaches to shakuhachi practice from the viewpoints of Japanese shakuhachi professionals.Yes100%
4.Explore ways in which the view of shakuhachi music as Japanese can be reconstructed in the Chinese context.Yes100%
5.Locate the presence of Chinese shakuhachi practitioners within the international scene of shakuhachi music by identifying their uniq approaches to shakuhachi music.Yes100%
6.Discuss the Chinese contributions to changing values, beliefs, and norms of shakuhachi music.Yes100%
Research Outcome
Major findings and research outcome: To reveal the localization process of the shakuhachi in China over the past 30 years, this research delved into the Chinese narratives surrounding its history and evolution. The research explored the evolving role of Chinese practitioners in the shakuhachi music scene, focusing on their values, preferences, teaching methods, and cultural narratives. A particular focus was placed on the fabricated Kyotaku Denki legend in Japan, which served as a crucial rationale for acknowledging and appropriating shakuhachi music in the Chinese context. Central to this legend was the narrative surrounding kyorei, a piece purportedly composed by Zhang Bai during the Tang Dynasty. This association not only legitimized the shakuhachi as part of Chinese cultural heritage but also fostered a profound sense of attachment and ownership among Chinese practitioners. For many, despite the modern form of the shakuhachi being developed in Japan, it is regarded as a Chinese instrument that evokes nostalgia for the past and reinforces a Chinese identity. This emotional connection explains the passion—and at times, the fervent determination—exhibited by Chinese shakuhachi players in their efforts to learn and localize the instrument within China. The research further identifies distinctive developments in Chinese approaches to shakuhachi practice. These include the establishment of online platforms for video instruction, the integration of shakuhachi into popular music reflecting the musical preference of younger generations. Such developments are also supported by the incorporation of traditional Chinese philosophical frameworks, including elements from Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism, which provide a rich conceptual foundation for understanding the shakuhachi’s role in Chinese culture. The debate among the Chinese over whether the shakuhachi is or should be classified as a Chinese or Japanese instrument will undoubtedly continue, driven by discussions about historical facts and Chinese identities. The findings of this research have been presented at two notable conferences in 2023 and 2024, with plans for a further presentation in January 2025 at the International Council for Traditions of Music and Dance (ICTMD). Additionally, a paper summarizing these findings has been submitted to the International Journal of Community Music and is currently under review. Another paper detailing further insights will be submitted to a journal following the ICTMD conference. Through these presentations and publications, the research aims to contribute to the broader discourse on the globalization and localization of musical traditions, highlighting the unique ways in which Chinese practitioners are shaping the future of shakuhachi music.
Potential for further development of the research
and the proposed course of action:
The research was an extension of my doctoral dissertation on Western approaches and appropriation of the shakuhachi tradition. Together, it lays the groundwork for a potential book focused on the glocalization of the shakuhachi across various regions, with China as a primary area of interest. This endeavor can draw inspiration from similar studies, such as Frühstück and Manzenreiter’s (2001) analysis of Judo culture in Europe, which emphasized the interplay of three key factors: the local culture (in a specific country), the culture of origin (Japan), and international movements (e.g., Olympic games). In a comparable manner, the shakuhachi tradition is influenced by the dynamics among these three domains: local, original, and international cultures. As the shakuhachi has gained international popularity, particularly through the engagement of non-Japanese players, a diverse community of shakuhachi enthusiasts has emerged, characterized by multilingual and transcultural practices. Meanwhile, local practitioners in China and elsewhere continue to redefine their identities and ethnolinguistic expressions through the instrument. Future research will delve deeper into the dynamic interactions among these practices, illuminating how they evolve and adapt in different cultural contexts, thereby contribute to broader discussions about cultural exchange and identity in an increasingly interconnected world.
Layman's Summary of
Completion Report:
The shakuhachi, a traditional bamboo flute often regarded as a Japanese instrument, boasts a unique history that traces back to the Tang dynasty in China. Remarkably, the shakuhachi, or “chiba” in Chinese, was reintroduced to China only in the 1990s after a hiatus of over 700 years. In the past decade, there has been a noticeable increase in the number of Chinese shakuhachi players, teachers, and instrument makers. This research investigated the evolving role of Chinese practitioners in the shakuhachi music scene, focusing on their values, preferences, teaching methods, and cultural narratives. Specifically, it uncovered how Chinese narratives have come to embrace the shakuhachi as a Chinese instrument and its music as Chinese, fostering a sense of attachment and ownership toward the shakuhachi. The study also identified unique developments in Chinese approaches to shakuhachi practice, which integrate not only Buddhist concepts but also elements from Taoism and Confucianism. This integration helps to root the practice more deeply in Chinese philosophies, thereby fostering a Chinese identity through shakuhachi music.
Research Output
Peer-reviewed journal publication(s)
arising directly from this research project :
(* denotes the corresponding author)
Year of
Publication
Author(s) Title and Journal/Book Accessible from Institution Repository
Koji Matsunobu* Tao Guan Kwok Wai Ng  Musical exchanges through the shakuhachi between China and Japan as intercultural community music practice  No 
Recognized international conference(s)
in which paper(s) related to this research
project was/were delivered :
Month/Year/City Title Conference Name
Seoul Performing and Teaching the Shakuhachi in China and Japan as Intercultural Practices  Asia Pacific Symposium for Music Education Research 
Tampere Musical exchanges through the shakuhachi between China and Japan as intercultural community music practice  Community Music Activity Commission 
Other impact
(e.g. award of patents or prizes,
collaboration with other research institutions,
technology transfer, etc.):

  SCREEN ID: SCRRM00542